However, the crown jewel of the Islamic Republic’s nuclear programme, a sprawling uranium enrichment facility built deep under a mountain in Fordow remains out of reach of Israel’s conventional weapons. It can only be destroyed with American “bunker-buster” bombs carried by B-2 Stealth fighters.

But Israel’s war in Gaza has divided the E3 over their approach to Israel, weakening European foreign policy unity further, although all want to avoid another war on Europe’s doorstep. The E3 positions on Israel have diverged since Israel’s war in Gaza began in October 2023.